Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from the inherent properties of the scents themselves. The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas chemicals have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of many of the claims made for aromatherapy. Scientific research on the cause and effect of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects. A few double blind studies in the field of clinical psychology relating to the treatment of severe dementia have been published. Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products.

Like many alternative therapies, few controlled, double-blind studies have been carried out—a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not patentable. Researchers at Sloan-Kettering have found that aromatherapy significantly reduces claustrophobia attacks for patients undergoing MRI scans;  however, studies of similar rigor are far from numerous.

Skeptical literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the anecdotal evidence of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatic chemical go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed.

Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is no scientific evidence that healing can be achieved, and that the claimed "energies" even exist, many skeptics reject this form of aromatherapy as pseudoscience or even quackery.

van der Watt and Janca have discovered that some of psychological disorders can be healed with the therapy through inhalation exercises, suggesting that further scientific studies, especially toxicity data, need to be conducted and collected to validate the finding .Other application include

    * to menopausal symptoms (inconclusive)
    * to nausea (inconclusive)

In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used neat, that is undiluted. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime. Also, many essential oils have aroma chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some of the chemical allergies could even be caused by pesticides, if the original plants are cultivated  . Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.

Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys (and so is not a scientific study), and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia. A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic estrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these 

As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.

While some advocate the ingestion of aromatic chemicals manufacturer for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oil. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon has been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml. A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar. Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin.

Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.

from:wiki

    * Antibacterial: In vitro testing has confirmed antibacterial effects in certain oils including rosemary, clove, lime, cinnamon, and tea tree oil.
    * Antiviral: Supported for tea tree oil, lemongrass, sandalwood, peppermint, ginger, thyme, and hyssop in in vitro testing against Herpes
    * Antifungal: Supported by in vitro testing for lavender, thyme, clove, juniper, and tea tree oil
    * Anti-inflammatory: Reported in in-vitro assays of clove, cinnamon, sage, eucalyptus, black cumin and bay leaf
    * Anxiolytic: Reported in animal models using oils of lavender, rose and angelica
    * Antispasmotic (spasmolytic): Spasmolytic properties for catnip, lavender and New Zealand tea tree oils have been reported in animal studies.
    * Antioxidant: thyme, clove, rose, eucalyptus, fennel, and bergamot in studies of bovine cells

    * Basil is used in perfumery for its clear, sweet and mildly spicy aroma chemicals . In aromatherapy, it is used for sharpening sexual concentration, for its uplifting effect on depression, and to relieve headaches and migraines. Basil oil has many chemotypes and some are known to be emmenagogues and should be avoided during pregnancy.
    * Bergamot is one of the most popular oils in perfumery. It is an excellent insect repellent and may be helpful for both the urinary tract and for the digestive tract. It is useful for skin conditions linked to stress, such as cold sores and chicken pox, especially when combined with eucalyptus oil. Bergamot is a flavoring agent in Earl Grey tea. Cold-pressed Bergamot oil contains bergaptene, a strong photosensitizer when applied to the skin, so only distilled or 'bergaptene-free' types can be topically used.
    * Black pepper has a sharp and spicy aromatic chemicals . Common uses include stimulating the circulation and for muscular aches and pains. Skin application is useful for bruises, since it stimulates the circulation.
    * Citronella oil, obtained from a relative of lemongrass, is used as an insect repellent and in perfumery.
    * Clove oil is a topical analgesic, especially useful in dentistry. It is also used an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, and antiemetic.
    * Eucalyptus oil is often used in combination with peppermint to provide relief for the airways in case of cold or flu.
    * Geranium oil is used as an astringent, antiseptic and diuretic.
    * Jasmine is used as an aphrodisiac.
    * Lavender oil is used as an antiseptic, to soothe minor cuts and burns, to calm and relax, for insomnia and to soothe headaches and migraines.
    * Lemon oil is uplifting and anti-stress/anti-depressant. In a Japanese study, lemon essential oil in vapour form has been found to reduce stress in mice. Research at The Ohio State University indicates that Lemon oil aroma chemicals

Pharmacological effects attributed to essential oils

from:wiki

Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma chemical on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils. While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic chemicals oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains to be proven. However, some preliminary clinical studies show positive effects.

In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst.

On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the approaches familiar to North Americans. In France some essential oils are regulated as prescription drugs, and thus administered by a physician. French doctors use a technique called the aromatogram to guide their decision on which essential oil to use. First the doctor cultures a sample of infected tissue or secretion from the patient. Next the growing culture is divided among petri dishes supplied with agar. Each petri dish is inoculated with a different essential oil to determine which have the most activity against the target strain of microorganism. The antiseptic activity manifests as a pattern of inhibited growth.

In many countries, essential oils are included in the national pharmacopoeia, but aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia, Germany, or Japan.

Aaroma fine chemicals oils (EOs), phytoncides, and other natural VOCs work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils," i.e., 1%–10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution—1%–5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system.

Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils. While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains to be proven. However, some preliminary clinical studies show positive effects.

In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst.

On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the approaches familiar to North Americans. In France some essential oils are regulated as prescription drugs, and thus administered by a physician. French doctors use a technique called the aromatogram to guide their decision on which essential oil to use. First the doctor cultures a sample of infected tissue or secretion from the patient. Next the growing culture is divided among petri dishes supplied with agar. Each petri dish is inoculated with a different essential oil to determine which have the most activity against the target strain of microorganism. The antiseptic activity manifests as a pattern of inhibited growth.

In many countries, essential oils are included in the national pharmacopoeia, but aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia, Germany, or Japan.

aromatic chemicals oils (EOs), phytoncides, and other natural VOCs work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils," i.e., 1%–10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution—1%–5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system.

Oils vary in price based on the amount of the harvest, the country of origin, the type of extraction used (steam distillation, CO2 extract, enfleurage), and how desirable the oil is. Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album) is considered more desirable than Australian Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum), based upon the aroma chemical, and is twice as costly, mainly because the tree that yields Indian Sandalwood essential oils is endangered, and because S. Spicatum essential oil contains only about 17% α-santalol and 7% β-santalol - much less than S. Album oil.Organic and wild harvested essential oils also tend to be more expensive.

Price is also determined by whether the oil is 'cut' or not. There are few companies and individuals that produce then resell 'pure', unadulterated essential oils. Many times oils are extracted, by whatever form, then repressed or thinned with a carrier of alcohol or some such substance. This lowers the quality of the healing properties of the oils. It can also lower the price necessary for a profit to be made, especially with higher priced oils such as rose or frankinscense.

from:wiki

Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and similar Aroma chemicals from plants, for the purpose of improving a person's mood, cognitive function or health. Preliminary scientific evidence is growing in all these areas. An aroma therapist is the person who performs the aromatherapy.

Aromatherapy is a generic term. It is used by manufacturers (of personal care, wellness and hygiene products) as well as practitioners, including massage therapists, chiropractors, nurses and doctors. Over-the-counter products that make use of essential oils (or their constituents, such as menthol and methyl salicylate) include mouthwashes, liniments and "rubbing ointments", such as Listerine, Mentholatum Deep Heat and Vicks VapoRub. However, aromatherapy purists insist that neither essential oil constituents as such, nor synthetic fragrant chemicals, should ever be used.

Because many essential oils are potent antimicrobials, they can be useful in the treatment of infectious disease. They are used as medicines, often in combination with other herbal preparations, by a small group of doctors in France. In nursing, essential oils are increasingly used in pain management, anxiety/depression, and Alzheimer's disease. Aromatherapy may be used in combination with other forms of alternative medicine. Terms such as 'essential oil therapy' 'clinical aromatherapy' and 'medical aromatherapy' have been used by some journals, educational institutions and practitioners, in order to distance themselves from association with the commercial aspects.

Aromatherapy has origins in antiquity with the use of infused aroma chemicals , made by macerating dried plant material in fatty oil, heating and then filtering. Many such oils, and their healing properties, are described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica, written in the first century. Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the invention of distillation in the eleventh century, when Avicenna isolated essential oils using steam distillation.

The concept of aromatherapy was first mooted by a small number of European scientists and doctors, in about 1907. In 1937, the word first appeared in print in a French book on the subject: Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993. In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly in a laboratory explosion. The hand developed gas gangrene, which he successfully, and intentionally, treated with lavender oil. This helped greatly to fire an already existing interest in aromatherapy, though it was not the "lucky accident" that is sometimes recounted by others.

A French surgeon, Jean Valnet, pioneered the medicinal uses of aromatic chemical oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.

The modes of application of aromatherapy include:

    * Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
    * Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects
    * Topical applications: for general massage, baths, compresses, therapeutic skin care

Some of the materials employed include:

    * Essential oils: Fragrant oils extracted from plants chiefly through steam distillation (e.g. eucalyptus oil) or expression (grapefruit oil). However, the term is also occasionally used to describe fragrant oils extracted from plant material by any solvent extraction.
    * Absolutes: aromatic chemicals extracted primarily from flowers or delicate plant tissues through solvent or supercritical fluid extraction (e.g. rose absolute). The term is also used to describe oils extracted from fragrant butters, concretes, and enfleurage pommades using ethanol.
    * Phytoncides: Various volatile organic compounds from plants that kill microbes. Many terpene-based fragrant oils and sulfuric compounds from plants in the genus "Allium" are phytoncides, though the latter are likely less commonly used in aromatherapy due to their disagreeable odors.
    * Herbal distillates or hydrosols: The aqueous by-products of the distillation process (e.g. rosewater). There are many herbs that make herbal distillates and they have culinary uses, medicinal uses and skin care uses. Common herbal distillates are rose, lemon balm and chamomile.
    * Infusions: Aqueous extracts of various plant material (e.g. infusion of chamomile)
    * Carrier oils: Typically oily plant base triacylglycerides that dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g. sweet almond oil)
    * Vaporizer (Volatized) Raw Herbs: Typically higher oil content plant based materials dried, crushed, and heated to extract and inhale the aromatic oil vapors in a direct inhalation modality

from:wiki

Kojic acid (5-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-4H-pyran-4-one), a g-pyrone derivative, is a fungal metabolite produced by many species of Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is a good chelator of transition metal ions such as Fe (III) and Cu (II) (Beélik, 1956; Wiley et al. 1942). Kojic acid occurs in many fermented Oriental foods (Kinoshita et al. 1968), and possesses both antibacterial and antifungal activities. A mixture of ascorbic acid and kojic acid has been patented for use as an anti-browning agent in foods (Fukusawa et al. 1982). Kojic acid has potential applicability in the prevention of melanosis in both plant and seafood products. Saruno et al. (1979) demonstrated that kojic acid from Aspergillus albus inhibited mushroom PPO activity. Kojic acid was also shown to inhibit melanosis in pink shrimp (Applewhite et al. 1990). Chen et al. (1991b) determined that kojic acid was a competitive inhibitor of the oxidation of chlorogenic acid and catechol by apple polyphenol oxidase.

Kojic acid inhibits the rate of formation of pigmented products, as well as the rate of oxygen uptake, when various o-dihydroxy- and trihydroxy phenols are oxidized by tyrosinase (Kahn, 1995). Tyrosinase inhibition by kojic acid was thought to be due to the ability of kojic acid to bind copper at the active site of the enzyme. Although kojic acid is a good inhibitor of polyphenol oxidase, its toxicity is of concern. Wei et al. (1991) reported weak mutagenic activity of kojic acid in a Salmonella typhimurium assay.

A fungal metabolic product, kojic acid inhibits the catecholase activity of tyrosinase, which is the rate-limiting, essential enzyme in the biosynthesis of the skin pigment melanin. Kojic acid is also consumed widely in the Japanese diet, with the belief that it is of benefit to health. Indeed, it has been shown to significantly enhance neutrophil phagocytosis and lymphocyte proliferation stimulated by phytohemagglutinin. Melanocytes treated with kojic acid become nondendritic, with a decreased melanin content. Additionally, it scavenges reactive oxygen species released excessively from cells or generated in tissue or blood.

Kojic acid is used in concentrations ranging from 1-4%. Although effective as a skin-lightening gel, it has been reported to have high sensitizing potential and may cause irritant contact dermatitis. In a study comparing glycolic acid/kojic acid combination with glycolic acid/hydroquinone, no statistical difference in efficacy was reported between kojic acid and hydroquinone; however, the kojic acid preparation was reported to be more irritating.
To decrease the irritation from kojic acid, it is combined with a topical corticosteroid. In a comparison study, 2% hydroquinone, 10% glycolic acid, and 2% kojic acid decreased hyperpigmentation in patients with melasma better than the same combination without kojic acid.

Kojic acid is an extremely unstable ingredient in cosmetic formulations. Upon exposure to air or sunlight it turns a strange shade of brown and loses its efficacy. Many cosmetics companies use kojic dipalmitate as an alternative because it is far more stable in formulations. However, there is no research showing that kojic dipalmitate is as effective as kojic acid, though it is a good antioxidant. Research shows that Kojic Acid is best presented and stored in glass ampoules.

Pigmentation is a disorder of skin complexion and color due to the increase in production of melanin.  In females, pigmentation often occurs due to hormonal changes in the body (in pregnancy, menopause etc), and appears as brown patches on the face.  Sun exposure causes this type of pigmentation increase, and also causes dark irregular patches on the exposed skin, like the upper lip, eye contour and body.  Another type of pigmentation is freckles.

Kojic acid can inhibit tyronisase activity, thus inhibiting skin melanin formation. Kojic acid and it's derivatives are widely used in high-quality skin lightening cosmetics, bath preparations and mouth or teeth care products. Cosmetics containing kojic acid can treat freckles, acne and pigmentation effectively without any toxic and bad results.

To get the best results out of Kojic Acid it is recommended to buy from a pharmacy the concentrate presented in glass cosmetic ampoules, as the Kojic Acid will be very concentrated, active and free from impurities.

Dermastir Kojic Acid skincare ampoules by ALTA CARE Laboratoires can be applied alone on the face without the need of mixing it with anything else. Otherwise it may also be added to your  night cream.  Since the Dermastir Kojic Acid Ampoule is a concentrate it may be applied on the face once every three days since kinetic studies show that the ingredients remain present and active in the skin for up to 3 days. It is highly recommended to use sun blocks all the year around especially during treatments with Dermastir Kojic acid ampoules.

The raspberry (plural, raspberries) is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus; the name also applies to these plants themselves. The name originally referred to the European species Rubus idaeus (with red fruit), and is still used as its standard English name.

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or as dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products. Traditionally, raspberries were a mid-summer crop, but with new technology, cultivars, and transportation, they can now be obtained year-round. Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on Phytophthora root rot which is one of the most serious pest problems facing raspberry ketone . As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow and has a tendency to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings.

Two types of most commercially grown kinds of raspberry are available, the summer-bearing type that produces an abundance of fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in mid-summer, and double- or "ever"-bearing plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9.

Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for 1 year in a northern climate such as Scotland (UK) or Washington State (US) where the chilling requirement for proper budbreak is met early. These canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants should be spaced 1 m apart in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges if there is any question about root rot problems.

The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.

Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers); extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberry ketone spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked.

The fruit is harvested when it comes off the torus/receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar). This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest. Excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal and medicinal teas. They have an astringent flavour, and in herbal medicine are reputed to be effective in regulating menses.

An individual raspberry weighs about 4 g, on average and is made up of around 100 drupelets, each of which consists of a juicy pulp and a single central seed. Raspberry bushes can yield several hundred berries a year. Unlike blackberries and dewberries, a raspberry ketone has a hollow core once it is removed from the receptacle.

Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking.

Red raspberries (Rubus idaeus and/or Rubus strigosus) have been crossed with the black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) to produce purple raspberries, and with various species in other subgenera of the genus Rubus, resulting in a number of hybrids, such as boysenberry and loganberry. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated raspberries and a few Asiatic species of Rubus is also being explored.

raspberry ketone

from:wiki

The chemical compound propyl acetate , also known as propyl ethanoate , is a common solvent. This clear, colourless liquid is known by its characteristic odour of pears. Due to this fact, it is commonly used as a flavouring additive. It is formed by the esterification of acetic acid and propan-1-ol.

Formula: C5H10O2 MolWt: 102.13 FEMA# 2925 CAS# 109-60-4

Technical Requirement:

A solvent is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution.

The most common solvent in everyday life is water. Most other commonly-used solvents are organic (carbon-containing) chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point and evaporate easily or can be removed by distillation, leaving the dissolved substance behind. To distinguish between solutes and solvents, solvents are usually present in the greater amount.

Solvents can also be used to extract soluble compounds from a mixture, the most common example being the brewing of coffee or tea with hot water. Solvents are usually clear and colorless liquids and many have a characteristic odor. The concentration of a solution is the amount of compound that is dissolved in a certain volume of solvent. The solubility is the maximal amount of compound that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical synthesis. The use of inorganic solvents (other than water) is typically limited to research chemistry and some technological processes.

In 2005, the worldwide market for solvents had a total volume of around 17.9 million tons, which led to a turnover of about 8 billion Euro.
When one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed. This is opposed to a mixture where one compound is added to another and no chemical bond is formed; a way to think of mixtures and solutions is to compare a cup of water with sand mixed in versus a soda where all of the ingredients are uniform to create a new substance. No residue is left in the bottom. The mixing is referred to as miscibility, whereas the ability to dissolve one compound into another is known as solubility. However, in addition to mixing, both substances in the solution can interact with each other in specific ways. Solvation describes these interactions. When something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange themselves around molecules of the solute. Heat is involved and entropy is increased making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute alone. This arrangement is mediated by the respective chemical properties of the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment and polarizability.

from:wiki

Tiglic acid is a monocarboxylic unsaturated organic acid. It is found in croton oil and in several other natural products. It was also isolated from the defensive secretion of certain beetles.
Tiglic acid has a double bond between the second and third carbons of the chain. Together with angelic acid form a pair of cis-trans isomers. Tiglic acid is a volatile and crystallizable substance with a sweet, warm spicy odour. It is used in making perfumes and flavoring agents.

Tiglic acid is a skin and eye irritant. The inhalation of the substance causes respiratory tract irritation. It is listed on the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).In 1819 Pelletier and Caventou isolated a peculiar volatile and crystallizable acid from the seeds of Schoenocaulon officinalis, a Mexican plant of family Melanthaceae (also called cevadilla or sabadilla). Consequently the substance was named sabadillic or cevadic acid. It was later found to be identical with Frankland and Duppa's methylcrotonic acid (1865). In 1870 Geuther and Fröhlich prepared an acid from croton oil to which they gave the name tiglic acid (or tiglinic acid) after (Croton) tiglium (Linn.), specific name of the croton oil plant. The compound was shown to be identical with the previously described methyl-crotonic acid.

Croton oil (Crotonis Oleum) is an oil prepared from the seeds of Croton tiglium, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiales and family Euphorbiaceae, and native or cultivated in India and the Malay Archipelago. Small doses taken internally cause diarrhea. Externally, the oil can cause irritation and swelling. In traditional Chinese medicine it is used as an ingredient in some liniments.

Croton oil is the source of the organic compound phorbol. Today croton oil is the basis of rejuvenating chemical peels, due to the caustic exfoliating effects it has on the dermal components of the skin. Used in conjunction with phenol solutions, it results in an intense reaction which leads to initial skin sloughing and then eventual regeneration.

In the United States Navy in World War II, a small amount of croton oil was added to the neutral grain spirits which powered torpedoes. The oil was intended to prevent sailors from drinking the alcohol fuel. A number of sailors devised crude stills to separate the alcohol from the croton oil, as alcohol evaporated at a lower temperature than croton oil.

Recently it has been discovered that croton oil is better than Jatropha for biodiesel. One can obtain 0.35 litres of biofuel from a kilo of croton nuts.
In "The Bulletin" (9 Dowry Square, Hot Wells, May 29, 1845) by the Reverend Richard Harris Barham, a medically-inspired poem to relieve the anxiety of a very dear friend, and written a month before Barham's death on June 17, 1845, the attending doctor to his patient advises amongst other treatments for a sore throat that is producing barely a sound: —[...]"Please put out your tongue again!/Now the blister!/Ay, the blister!/ Let your son, or else his sister,/Warm it well, then clap it here, sir,/All across from ear to ear, sir;/That suffices,/When it rises,/Snip it, sir, and then your throat on/Rub a little oil of Croton:/Never mind a little pain!/Please put out your tongue again!" [...] The patient was Barham, who had accidentally swallowed a piece of pear core that got into his windpipe on October 28, 1844. "Despite" the "professional" advice and the very painful and "highest quality" treatments of the time being given freely to him by Doctors Roberts and Scott, and the eminent surgeon Mr. Coulson, for "violent vomiting", "inflamed throat", and then catching "a cold" in April, 1845, Barham died.

In John Steinbeck's novel East of Eden, Kate used it to slowly murder Faye and inherit her whorehouse.

In El Dorado starring John Wayne, cayenne pepper, mustard (the hot kind), ipecac, asafoetida, croton oil, and gunpowder are the ingredients in an emetic administered to Robert Mitchum's drunken sheriff to sober him up and prevent him from drinking for the foreseeable future. Arthur Hunnicutt's character Bull expresses great surprise that the extract's use will be risked.

In Bernard Cornwell's American Civil War novel Copperhead, croton oil is used to torture the protagonist, Nathaniel Starbuck, in an attempt to get him to confess to a crime. In the sequel, The Bloody Ground, an officer of the punishment battalion Starbuck is in command of rubs croton oil into his face (causing sores) to make it appear he has a skin disease which makes it impossible for him to fight.

from:wiki

JP409077603 describes the use of Kojic acid [5-hydroxy-2-(hydroxyme- thyl)-gamma-pyrone], a fungal metabolite that has been shown to be a PPO inhibitor, acting by interfering with oxygen uptake and reducing o-quinones to diphenols to prevent pigment formation (Chen et al., 1991). Whether this compound shows potential as a practical browning, kojic acid is a fungal metabolite commonly produced by many species of aspergillus, acetobacter and penicillium. The aspergillus flavus group has traditionally been used in the production of a number of foods, including miso (soybean paste), shoyu (soy sauce), and sake. Kojic acid is widely used as a food additive for preventing enzymatic browning and in cosmetic preparations as a skin-lightening or bleaching agent. Because kojic acid is often produced during the fermentation of historically used dietary staples, it has a long history of consumption. Various types of compounds, such as glucose, sucrose, acetate, ethanol, arabinose and xylose, have been used as carbon sources for kojic acid production.

Different aspergillus species are known to produce variable amounts of Kojic acid. The mechanism of action of kojic acid is well defined and has been shown to act as a competitive and reversible inhibitor of animal and plant polyphenol oxidases, xanthine oxidase, D-amino and some L-amino acid oxidases. The structure of kojic acid indicates a relatively simple route of metabolism much like dietary hexoses. Acute or sub chronic toxicity resulting from an oral dose has not been reported, but convulsions may occur if kojic acid is injected. Results of mutagenicity studies are mixed, but in the in vivo mammalian dominant lethal assay, kojic acid was proven negative.

Continuous administration of high doses of kojic acid in mice resulted in induction of thyroid adenomas in both sexes. Kojic acid reversibly affects thyroid function primarily by inhibiting iodine uptake, leading to decreases in T3 and T4 and increase in TSH. Increased TSH from pituitary gland in turn stimulates thyroid hyperplasia. Several lines of evidence indicate that the proliferative effects of kojic acid on thyroid are not related to a genotoxic pathway. The risk of functional inhibition of iodine uptake and its metabolism (organification) and thyroid tumor induction by Kojic acid in humans appears to be extremely low. Based on the literature reviewed and discussed here, consumption of kojic acid at levels normally found in food does not present a concern for safety. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.

The Kojic acid normally used in cosmetics would seem to be undesirable in its limited FDA research and current finding to the consumer for consumption. Also, the water absorbent paper of non-woven fabric mentioned is limited to having no specific formula as to what specific type of paper would be effective.

from:freshpatents

2-Undecanone , also known as methyl nonyl ketone and IBI-246 , is an oily organic liquid manufactured synthetically, but which can also be extracted from oil of rue. It is found naturally in bananas, cloves, ginger, guava, strawberries, and wild-grown tomatoes. 2-Undecanone is used in the perfumery and flavoring industries, but because of its strong odor it is primarily used as an insect repellent or animal repellent. Typically, 1–2% concentrations of 2-undecanone are found in dog and cat repellents in the form of a liquid, aerosol spray, or gel.

Research from North Carolina State University has shown that it may be useful as a mosquito repellent, as effective as, or even more effective than, DEET.

2-Undecanone is a ketone, also known as methyl nonyl ketone (MNK). It is soluble in ethanol, benzene, chloroform, and acetone, but its large carbon chain renders it insoluble in water. Like most methyl ketones, 2-undecanone undergoes a haloform reaction when in the presence of a base. For example, the reaction between 2-Undecanone and sodium hypochlorite yields sodium decanoate, chloroform, and sodium hydroxide.

CH3CO(CH2)8CH3 + 3NaOCl → CH3(CH2)8COONa + CHCl3 + 2NaOH

Naturally exist: exist in the banana, guava, strawberry, onion, cloves, ginger, rue oil.
Sensory characteristics: with a candle incense, fruit, ketones incense, fat incense, and with the butter, cheese flavor.
Application recommendations: for the deployment of oranges, coconut, jackfruit, mushrooms, cheese, butter oil, butter and other food flavor.
Dosage: in the final concentration of flavoring in food is about 0.54 ~ 5mg/kg.

from:wiki

An aroma is a volatilised chemical compound that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction.A captive odorant, or short captive, is an odorant or aroma chemicals retained by the originating manufacturer for exclusive use in their own perfumes to protect them from imitation.

Products of aroma chemicals carotenoid degradation such as ionones, damascones and damascenones are also important fragrance chemicals that are used extensively in the perfumes and fragrance industry. Both β-damascenone and β-ionone although low in concentration in rose distillates are the key odour-contributing compounds in flowers.

In fact, the sweet floral smells present in black tea, aged tobacco, grape, and many fruits are due to the aromatic compounds resulting from carotenoid breakdown.

An aroma compound, also known as odorant, aroma,aroma chemicals, fragrance or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. A chemical compound has a smell or odor when two conditions are met: the compound needs to be volatile, so it can be transported to the olfactory system in the upper part of the nose, and it needs to be in a sufficiently high concentration to be able to interact with one or more of the olfactory receptors.

Aroma compounds can be found in food, wine, spices, perfumes, fragrance oils, and essential oils. For example, many form biochemically during ripening of fruits and other crops. In wines, most form as byproducts of fermentation.

Odorants can also be added to a dangerous odorless substance, like natural gas or hydrogen, as a warning. As well many of the aroma compounds plays a significant role in the production of flavorants, which are used in the food service industry to flavor, improve and increase the appeal of their products.